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Petroglyphs, The Bend in the Boyne (County Meath, Ireland)

Copyright © 2010
Companion Paper - Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages
All rights reserved, with the exception of the quotations, photographs, maps and drawings.

Introduction

The Bend in the Boyne, or Bru na Boinne, which in 1993 was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is perhaps one of the most significant Neolithic complexes in the world, not only with respect to its size and number of monuments, but its wealth of Neolithic petroglyphs, which constitutes the largest collection of rock art in Europe.

Orthostat 8 - Knowth site 14As far back as the Upper Paleolithic, through the 19th century, art was predominantly representational, whether real or imagined. However, for some inexplicable reason, the seemingly unanimous conclusion is that, at least with respect to the Neolithic inhabitants of Ireland and Britain, their art was overwhelmingly abstract, or at the very least highly stylized. While it's extremely unlikely those inhabitants were millennia ahead of their time when it comes to abstract or highly stylized art, they were well ahead when it came to cartography. Such is the case of the rear panel on Orthostat 8, Site 14 at Knowth, which is a map of the Boyne as it existed centuries prior to the construction of the mounds at Knowth and Newgrange. Though the commonly held belief of what monuments comprise the Boyne Ensemble includes Dowth, that may not have been the case during the Early Neolithic, as it and the monuments within the immediate area are not depicted on the panel. This either indicates that, for a time, Dowth was part of an adjoining 'territory', or that it was the last of the three areas to be settled. More importantly than the panel being a 'map', which obviously can help pinpoint the location of monuments that are no longer visible in the landscape, it represents the historical record of the site, a record that is quite literally carved in stone. (see images and drawings, pdf pages 20 - 25) (Note: interpretation of the images and drawings is solely the work of this author.)

"Theories abound as to the meaning of the rock art found on standing stones, orthostats and kerbstones in Ireland and Britain, yet no one has been able to decipher an entire panel by applying those theories. One problem is that each symbol has been deciphered individually and assigned one definition, ignoring the fact that the symbols are likely to have multiple meanings depending on their context, just as words do in our language today." Sean Keir Moriarty 'Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages' The result of the foregoing, is that the vast majority of symbols on the panels are either ignored, or require lengthy, complicated explanations. That being said, the context within which the symbols are used, in and of itself may be difficult to determine. The two things to keep in mind, are that the art is predominantly representational, and the principle of 'Occam's Razor', which states "entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity". In other words, the simplest explanation tends to be correct.

The artists responsible for the petroglyphs, employed a technique dating to the Upper Paleolithic, that of shading, of which four examples stand out. First, are the different styles of depicting mounds, which are nothing more than variations on a theme. Also, its use to depict features in the landscape, the roofline of structures and lastly the contours of monuments. Additionally, there's one symbol which, over time and different cultures, was used to depict two different types of features. Zigzags in the case of Kerbstone 15 depict a bank, (see item 2) whereas on the Soleto Map, (c. 500 BC) the symbol represents seas on either side of the Puglia peninsula in southern Italy. (see images, pdf pages 26 & 27, also Glossary, pdf pages 64 - 68)

Perhaps the most enigmatic symbol in Neolithic art is the spiral, particularly the triple spirals at Newgrange. The meanings which have been ascribed to them, range from life-death-rebirth, to various phases of the moon. However, a simpler explanation is that the spiral was just another variation on a theme for depicting mounds, that may have been prompted by the manner in which they might have been constructed. Given their size, it would have been necessary to build a ramp, in this case an encircling one, which is exactly how Silbury was constructed. (see drawings, top of pdf page 28) The sloping layers of earth and stone seen in the cross-section of Site 1 at Knowth during excavation, seem to attest to that. (see photos, bottom of pdf page 28) As such, the artist's view from atop the mounds, would have been that of a spiral. As there are no outward signs of their existence, unlike Silbury, the ramps were probably infilled at some point in time, rather than having silted over. In short, the triple spiral may very well depict Knowth, Newgrange and Dowth. That they form a triangle, just as the sites do in the landscape, and are connected, may signify they had by that time become part of the same 'territory'.

Applying the above with respect to the spiral, the panel on Kerbstone 5 of Site 1 at Knowth, appears to depict Sites 1, 15, 20 and a small, unidentified monument. Sites 15 and 20 each have undifferentiated chambers, whose passageways face Site 1. Site 20 exists today, just as it's depicted, i.e. sans a mound. That Site 15 is not depicted as a spiral, but rather depicts its passageway, just as Site 20 is, indicates that when it was first constructed, it too had no mound. (see photos, pdf page 29) While Site 1 is depicted as being the same size as Sites 15 and 20, this may support Dr. George Eogan's findings that Site 1 was built in stages. (see item 9) The additional lines within the symbol depicting Site 15, are contour lines, indicating that the earthen wall surrounding its orthostats, was higher than that of Site 20.

Aside from the panel on Orthostat 8, there are thousands found on orthostats, kerbstones and standing stones at sites throughout Ireland and Britain, many of which are also likely maps. At Loughcrew alone, there are several examples. (see photos, pdf page 30) This raises two questions. First, the reason for the number of panels. The simple explanation is that as the sites evolved, the panels became obsolete, thus necessitating the carving of new 'maps', which may depict an entire site, or merely those monuments within a specific area of a site, as in the case of Kerbstone 5. Secondly, there may be monuments depicted differently, depending on the panel. This could be due to the monuments evolving from one type to another, or incorporated into new monuments, or that each artist simply chose to employ their own style.

There are theories that some of the carved orthostats within passage mounds, are illuminated during specific astronomical events, however, their placements are random. Moreover, if it was the intent of the builders that these stones be so illuminated, they would have carved them on the orthostats at the front of the passageways, not the middle and rear sections, side chambers or capstones. (see drawings, pdf page 31)

Additionally, there are instances where stones, such as Orthostat 8, have carvings on more than one face, and thus some of the art is hidden. While there are various explanations for this 'hidden art', the most plausible is that the stones, many of which were transported to the Boyne from a site 16km (9.9 miles) away, were simply reused. Also, with regards to the location of the 'hidden art', there is no pattern to it. If for example, all or even the overwhelming majority of rear chamber stones had 'hidden art', then it would be reasonable to conclude it had some special significance, and therefore was intentionally hidden, however, that's not the case.

The foregoing two paragraphs point up several other misconceptions regarding the artwork, aside from it being overwhelmingly abstract or highly stylized. First, that it was carved in situ. Secondly, that standing stones, kerbstones and orthostats have always been just that, which means the orientation of the artwork, may not be what the artist intended. Given the fact that over the millennia, worldwide, stones from earlier monuments have been 'recycled' centuries later to build new structures, it stands to reason that some of the stones used in constructing the passage mounds, were scavenged from nearby monuments that had fallen into disuse. At Knowth, stones may have even been taken from the satellite mounds that had been constructed prior to Site 1, which perhaps explains why the majority of their orthostats and kerbstones are missing. As such, there may be no association whatsoever between the art and a particular monument, or even an entire site. Moreover, the stones may have been intentionally broken up to fit the needs of the builders, which would explain why some of the panels appear to be incomplete, thus making it even more difficult to interpret them.

With respect to the rear panel on Orthostat 8, there are numerous nondescript features, which appear to be naturally occurring flaws in the stone, and have therefore been deleted. (Note: carving the symbols into the stone, i.e. cups/mounds and rings/ramparts etc., rather than as reliefs, would have been far less time consuming for the artists, and made it possible for them to add symbols as the complex evolved.)

Lastly, the location of the monuments depicted on Orthostat 8, may vary slightly from the Lidar image and map, which is due to one or more of the following:
  1. The geographical area depicted, covers roughly 4 sq. kilometers, (2.5 sq. miles) and was mapped without the aid of any modern devices.

  2. The carvings were done over a significant period of time, by various artists. The use of "conventional plan and section drawings" is "a time consuming, highly subjective method that has a low level of accuracy and a high level of error." (The Discovery Programme)

  3. The surface area on which to carve the monuments was limited.

  4. The shape, contours and flaws of the stone.

The Topography of the Boyne

  1. Calculating the alignment of the Boyne passage mounds to any astronomical events, and developing a lunisolar calendar, would have, under the best of circumstances, taken a few centuries, due to a number of factors. First and foremost, would have been what degree of knowledge, if any, the people had of such events. Secondly, as the people had no written language, knowledge was by necessity passed on through word of mouth. This method was no doubt affected greatly by their short life span. In view of that, it would have been logical for the builders to pass their knowledge on to several individuals. However, the loss of even one or two, could have set back their calculations by years or even decades. Lastly, as their calculations would have been based on events occurring repeatedly over the long-term, the weather would have been an extremely significant factor, which may have impeded the builders from calculating, or perhaps even being aware of, a particular astronomical event for years or decades at a time. An example of this are eclipses, which due to the weather in Ireland, are reportedly only visible on average every 8 to 10 years.

  2. It's been suggested that the 'dial' depicted on Kerbstone 15 of Site 1 at Knowth, was used for calculating astronomical events. However, its geographical orientation is incorrect for even performing as a 'vertical dial', moreover, it lacks a gnomon. Beyond that, are the two spirals, zigzags and rectangular symbol, which would have served no purpose, if the panel actually was a 'dial'. (see photo and drawing, pdf page 32) As such, a semi-permanent 'structure' is more likely, one using material of significant size and durability, the most obvious choice being stone, which would have been placed on top of the ground, allowing the builders to easily make adjustments as the need arose. The 'dial' on Kerbstone 15, therefore, is simply a depiction of the life-size version the builders constructed at Knowth, in front of what became the eastern passage. (see photos and drawings, pdf pages 32 - 35) Construction of the monument, likely occurred in stages:

    1. The rectangular structure, quartz and granite field, along with settings 1 - 7. The structure would have served as on-site housing for the 'astronomers', which would have been located north of the bank, on the property adjacent to the site, known as Knowth House, an area that has yet to be excavated. Setting 1 would have contained a gnomon, i.e. Standing Stone 1. As for the quartz and granite field, it would have enabled the 'astronomers' to see more clearly the shadow cast by the gnomon. This would have been particularly helpful at night, during phases of the moon, and under less than optimal weather conditions, day or night. It may also have served the additional purpose of reflecting light into the passage, for a longer period of time than just direct light during a solar or lunar event. In the drawing of the panel on Kerbstone 15, settings 3 - 7 are missing. However, in examining photographs of the stone, the section just above the quartz/granite field, appears to have broken off, perhaps due to natural causes over the millennia. (see photo & drawing, pdf page 32) This would be consistent with many of the kerbstones, whose panels also appear to be incomplete. (see photos, pdf page 36) Within settings 2 - 7, there would likely have been a stone to mark the shadow cast by the gnomon. One possible candidate are Baetyl Stones, of which two examples were unearthed at Knowth; one in front of the western entrance to Site 1, and the second near the entrance to Site 12. (see drawing & photo, top of pdf page 37)

    2. The radials and outer settings. As in the case of the upper part of the panel being incomplete, the lower portion appears to be so as well, as there are outer settings that seem to be missing. (see photo & drawing, pdf page 32) The reason for suggesting that these were added after the quartz/granite field and settings, is that the 'astronomers' would not have known for perhaps a century, the precise cycle of lunar and solar events. There is a 'monument' of sorts located between Sites 2 & 3, that matches the layout of the outer settings of the radials depicted on Kerbstone 15. (see photo, bottom of pdf page 37) This may indicate a 'dial' was constructed in that area, perhaps prior to that constructed in front of the eastern entrance to Site 1. The outer most settings, which were also likely quartz fields, seem to depict lunar phases and standstills, which could mean the eastern passage of Site 1 is aligned with one or more lunar events. Additionally, there are nineteen (19) radials, that possibly correspond to the 19 year Metonic Cycle, indicating the array also served as a lunisolar calendar.

    3. Upon deciding which astronomical event(s) to align the eastern passage with, Standing Stone 2 would have been added to the quartz/granite field, extending the line of alignment. That line was further extended by the markings on Kerbstone 11, which may indicate the days prior to and after an event, when the passageway was fully illuminated. (see photos, pdf page 38) Additionally, based on Thomas Molyneux's report of a pyramidal standing stone found within the chamber at Newgrange during his survey in 1726, it's suggested that a standing stone also once stood at the center of what became the eastern chamber of Knowth, thereby extending the line of alignment the entire length of the eventual passageway.

    4. Lastly, construction of the small mound and Site 17. (see photo and overlay, pdf page 39)

  3. Based on the foregoing, the panel on Kerbstone 15 was the key to deciphering the rear panel on Orthostat 8. With regards to the latter, the 'dial'; labeled Knowth on the drawing, is not oriented correctly to what became the eastern passage of Site 1, i.e. facing east, for which there are a couple of possible reasons. (see drawing and Lidar image, pdf pages 23 & 24) To begin with, the 'dial' may be one that was constructed where Site 3 exists today, as suggested in item 2B. However, as seen on Dr. Eogan's drawing of Orthostat 8, there's a rectangular symbol just below the 'dial', with a straight line from the 'dial' to the rectangle, which likely depicts the rectangular timber structure found during his excavation. (see drawing, pdf page 23) "The structure is located about 12 m [39.37 feet] east of the entrance to the Eastern Tomb in the large mound. The building measures 9.11 x 8.10 m [29.88 x 26.57 feet] externally and 6.70 x 6.28 m [21.98 x 20.6 feet] internally" "It should be emphasized that the entire layout is symmetrical" The rectangular symbol, with its shaded triangles, enclosed within a second rectangle, match Dr. Eogan's further description of the structure. "this elaborate arrangement suggests a porch. This internal pattern in conjunction with the facade and the relatively small size of the structure suggests that it may have been roofed." (Dr. George Eogan) (see photo and overlay, pdf page 40) In either case, the shape, contours and flaws of the stone, may not have allowed the artist to orient the 'dial' and rectangular symbol correctly. Their orientation would further have been dictated by the fact that both symbols are not carved proportionately to those depicting the monuments at Newgrange. Had the artist oriented them properly, it would have been impossible to depict the symbols in detail.

    It should be noted that the aforementioned structure, is not the same as that depicted on Kerbstone 15. The reason for this gets back to the stages of construction. As the outer quartz fields depicting lunar phases and standstills were added, it would have been necessary to relocate the structure depicted on Orthostat 8, to where it's depicted as being on Kerbstone 15.

  4. As for the alignment of the western passage to any astronomical event(s), this too would have required a 'dial', the remains of which are the quartz/granite field, standing stone and six (6) settings discovered in front of that entrance. The line of alignment would have been extended by the markings on Kerbstone 74. (see photo and drawing, top of pdf page 41) Having said that, there's a third 'dial' at Knowth, which may be a depiction of the one constructed in front of the western passage. The reason for this suggestion, is that there are three (3) indentations at the center of the 'dial', whereas on Orthostat 8 there's only one (1) and on Kerbstone 15 just two (2), and unlike Kerbstone 15, the carving depicts no other monuments. (see photo, bottom of pdf page 41)

    With regards to the inner 8 - 9 meters of the western entrance, (34.2 meters in length) it's aligned differently than that of the outer section, by 2 to 3 degrees. (see drawings, pdf page 45) One possible explanation for this, is that the line of alignment to any astronomical event(s), was transferred incorrectly from the 'dial' in front of the eastern passage. As mentioned in item 1, the weather may have prevented the builders from even being aware of this for years after Tomb 1B was constructed. It would have been at this point that a 'dial' was built in front of the western passage, decades prior to the construction of Tomb 1C, and its alignment corrected. Again, based on Thomas Molyneux's report, a standing stone may have been added in front of the western passage to Tomb 1B, decades prior to the construction of Tomb 1C, thereby extending the line of alignment the entire length of what became the outer section of the passage. If that's the case, then the third standing stone depicted on the 'dial', may be that standing stone, with the inner two located within the quartz field, just outside the entrance to Tomb 1C.

  5. Another example of a quartz field was unearthed at the entrance to Site 4 at Knowth, which measured over two (2) meters in diameter, and was surrounded by two (2) concentric rings of smaller stones. This seems to indicate that, at one time, a 'dial' existed in front of its entrance, in which case Site 4 would have to have been constructed prior to Site 1.

  6. There is a potential fourth example of a 'dial' at Knowth, which decorates the inside of the basin found in the eastern passage. The fact that the carving does not depict the quartz settings at the end of the radials, and is in fact missing a number of them, may indicate it was carved prior to the 'dials' depicted on Kerbstone 15 and Orthostat 8. (see photo and drawings, pdf page 42)

    Throughout history, the religions of the world have practiced ritual cleansing prior to ceremonies or even prayer, whether it's washing of the entire body in a bath or pool, or simply the hands in a basin. However, the basins found within passage mounds have been determined to be funerary vessels, simply because some cremated human remains were found within a few of them. This is not only wholly inconsistent with known religious rites, but inconsistent with the burial practices during the Neolithic Period in Ireland, as evidenced by the cremated remains at the Hill of Tara having been placed in cists and pits. (see item 9, para. 3 & 4)

  7. In calculating any astronomical events, it would have been necessary to keep 'notes' of some sort, and updating them as new observations were made. Again, the most likely choice would have been carving them in stone. As numerous stones are decorated with art that has been interpreted as being depictions of lunar or solar events, it's likely those panels are the 'notes' kept by the builders, and may have formed part of the radials. Two possible examples, are Kerbstones 1 & 52 of Site 1 (see drawings, pdf page 43) When the stones became obsolete, they would have been swapped out, and reused in constructing the mounds at Knowth. This gets back to the issue raised in the introduction, that standing stones, kerbstones and orthostats may not have always been that, and therefore the orientation of the art, not what the artist had intended.

  8. Other than the panels being 'maps', or depicting lunisolar events, some may have served a very different purpose. The following excerpt is from 'Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages', pages 20 & 21.

    Ogham script consists "almost exclusively of personal names and marks possibly indicating land ownership". (Wikipedia) Since it was of such importance for the Celts beginning in the 3rd century AD to proclaim themselves with their first written language, it's logical that it would have been just as important for the Neolithic, Bronze and Early Iron Age inhabitants of Ireland to do so as well, using symbols to depict names and land ownership.

    Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth are supposedly cemeteries. When you visit any cemetery, be it ancient or modern day, somewhere on the tombs or headstones appear the names of those buried there, perhaps where they were from, along with their dates of birth and dates they died.

    1. As to the names, it's likely that many of the carvings found on the kerbstones are an early form of heraldry. Comparing them to Irish Coats of Arms, there are designs that both share. This parallels the hypothesis by Dr. Katina Lillios in her book 'Heraldry for the Dead', though hers deals with designs found on Neolithic plaques buried with the remains of individuals in Portugal and Spain. (see drawings, pdf page 44)

    2. Where they were from might be indicated by carvings depicting the monuments of their respective provincial kingships.

    3. With respect to the dates, they could be depicted in the form of a lunisolar calendar of some type.

    That said, in the case of Knowth, the one hundred and twenty-seven kerbstones far outnumber the remains that have been excavated. So too do the ninety-seven kerbstones at Newgrange. However, in light of the fact that Duma na nGiall was constructed atop the remains buried within the 13m enclosure, it's possible there are remnants of enclosures beneath the clay mantles at Newgrange and Knowth, the identities of the remains within them, corresponding to the kerbstones described above. The possibility of enclosures and burial cists being located beneath the mantles of similar earthen monuments in Ireland and Britain, may well apply to sites such as Silbury Hill in Wiltshire, England.

    The foregoing raises three issues. First, whether the artifacts and/or remains unearthed at Newgrange and Knowth have been, as in the case of Duma na nGiall, incorrectly associated with their dates of construction. Secondly, whether the kerbstones and orthostats at both sites formed, or were part of, monuments predating the mounds, which would explain why there are carvings on other faces of the stones. Lastly, whether the inner section of the western passage at Knowth, (Site 1) was part of an earlier monument, which would explain the peculiar layout of the passageway as it exists today. (Sean Keir Moriarty)

  9. The time necessary to calculate any astronomical events the passages at Knowth are aligned with, indicates the intent to construct Site 1, was arrived at centuries earlier. Taking that into consideration, and the fact that the stones were quarried and transported to the site from 16 kilometers away, the builders would have likely started gathering the stones well in advance.

    According to Dr. Eogan, there were two phases to the construction of Site 1 at Knowth, which would account for the odd alignment of the western passage, as well as the houses unearthed just inside the perimeter of Tomb 1C. (see drawings, pdf page 45) However, this would have meant that either the core area of Knowth was open space for a number of centuries, which is highly unlikely, or that it was originally occupied by a free-standing monument, using those stones collected in advance of constructing Tomb 1B.

    In view of the fact that so few remains have been found within the mounds at Knowth, (see drawing, pdf page 46) the purpose of a suggested free-standing monument, is that it was used as a burial site, and the chambers of the eastern passage constructed at the center of those burials. (see drawings, pdf page 47) This would match what was discovered within the 13m timber enclosure, unearthed beneath the Mound of the Hostages at Tara, located several kilometers southwest of Knowth. (see 'Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages', item 13, pages 13 - 16) "Surrounding the cairn and sometimes located beneath the earthen mantle, the excavators recorded a ring of seventeen bone deposits..." (from "Tara, The Mound of the Hostages" by Dr. Muiris O'Sullivan, UC Dublin) Additionally, there were" three cists at the back of the orthostats... built within the bedding trench that had been cut into the bedrock to receive the orthostats. This appears to indicate what has often been suggested but can rarely be demonstrated, that the tomb chamber initially functioned as [a] free-standing funerary structure before the cairn was built around and above it. "(from a review by Professor Chris Scarre, Durham University, of Dr. O'Sullivan's book 'Tara, The Mound of the Hostages' In short, the altar stone or basin at the center of the suggested free-standing monument, became the rear orthostat or basin in the chamber of the eastern passage, with the burial cists surrounding the chamber. This would still have allowed for the construction of the houses within the perimeter of Tomb 1C, prior to its construction. This may explain why the mounds constructed prior to Site 1, encircle the area.

    Aside from the aforementioned burial cists and pits at Tara, there were numerous additional cremated remains that filled the chamber and passageway of the Mound of the Hostages, which defeated its alignment to the cross-quarter sunrises. (see photos, pdf page 48) In view of that evidence, any remains found within the chambers of the Boyne passage mounds, were in all probability placed there well after they were constructed, either by a subsequent generation of the builders, due to a dramatic shift in religious practices, or by a different culture entirely. All things considered, passage mounds are not monuments for the dead, but rather monuments to the dead. Simply put, they were 'chapels'. A perfect analogy is St. Peter's Basilica, the main altar of which was constructed above his remains that are interred within the catacombs, or necropolis, beneath the church, along with those of many later Popes. Merely because the catacombs have remained in use since the Basilica's construction, (326 - 333 A.D.) it does not follow that the building is a tomb, any more than passage mounds can be considered tombs.

    So if the passage mounds were not constructed as tombs, it begs the question of where the thousands of inhabitants who died over the millennia were buried. One answer, at least with respect to the average citizen of the time, is that after cremation, their remains were placed on small rafts or boats, and set adrift on the River Boyne. As for those of title, the small mounds were likely reserved for them.

  10. As for assigning any construction dates to the mounds at Knowth, based on the radiocarbon dating of the remains, there are two issues which make that extremely problematic. To begin with, there is no evidence of association between the remains and construction of the mounds. More importantly, is the probability that the radiocarbon dates are highly suspect, due to the 'reservoir effect'. Following is an excerpt from 'Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages', pages 16 - 18, that discusses in depth the issue regarding this anomaly, which given the Boyne's proximity to Tara, likely affects the remains unearthed at any sites within the ensemble as well.

    Errors in radiocarbon dating can be attributed to a host of factors, one of which is the reservoir effect. With regards to the remains unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall, this anomaly was never taken into account. "for the accurate dating of human bone samples when the possibility exists of an aquatic component in the dietary protein... d15N analysis should be undertaken routinely." (Cook, G.T, Bonsall, C, Hedges, R.E.M, McSweeney, K, Boroneant, V., Pettitt, P.B.)

    1. Ireland is an island. As such, its inhabitants, like every island culture, would have at least had a moderate diet of fish and shellfish. Furthermore...

    2. Tara is located only a few kilometers from the Irish Sea, two rivers, the Boyne and the Liffey, and numerous tributaries. This would have provided the inhabitants with an easy source of food. Evidence of this ...

    3. A fish weir on the Boyne, just below Dowth, again only a few kilometers from Tara, and...

    4. The remains of Mesolithic two fish traps, and a possible dugout canoe and dock unearthed in 2006 at Clowanstown 1, just southeast of Tara.

    With respect to the reservoir effect on the Carbon 13 & 15 values, "we do not consider it likely that the dates have been affected by dietary factors." (A.L. Brindley, J.N. Lanting and J. van der Plicht) However, they go on to state that the negative Carbon 13 values suggest a "diet relatively poor in animal protein". "The same negative value could be expected in the case of moderate consumption of freshwater fish/shellfish, in which case the radiocarbon ages of these unburnt bone samples would be too old." "These apparent ages are about 400 years for marine fish and shellfish, and may be up to several thousands of years in the case of freshwater fish and shellfish." "The difference between a diet poor in protein and a diet including freshwater fish/shellfish is reflected in the d15N values." "It is too early to judge the significance of the d15N values. More work on Irish bone collagen is needed." "calibrated dates are still affected by 'own age' and 'reservoir age'... and ideally should be corrected... In practice this is usually impossible." (A.L. Brindley, J.N. Lanting and J. van der Plicht)

  11. "Approximately a thousand years before the construction of the Knowth mound took place, there was a small settlement which has been identified from the remains of a rectangular house... and it dates to about 4,000 BC." (Dr. George Eogan) Given that the rectangular structure depicted on the rear panel of Orthostat 8 at Knowth, roughly dates to 4000 BC, and that there are numerous other monuments depicted as well, which would have taken a few centuries to construct, it appears the Boyne was not only inhabited, but fairly well developed by the end of the Late Mesolithic Period.

    While it might be argued that Knowth was the first area settled within the Boyne, given the amount of development within the valley, as depicted on the rear panel of Orthostat 8, that seems highly unlikely, especially considering the number of monuments depicted on the front panel of Orthostat 8. Though there are no distinctive symbols, like the 'dial' on the rear panel, to key off of in deciphering the front panel, there is one symbol that may be the River Boyne, in which case the area depicted would be south of the river, just below Newgrange. (see drawings and map, pdf pages 49 & 50) (Note: interpretation of the images and drawings is solely the work of this author.) There are a couple of reasons for this suggestion. To begin with, the River Boyne is not depicted on the rear panel, so the front panel may be an extended depiction of the site, similar to the overleaf on a map. Moreover, it's extremely unlikely that only the area north of the river was settled during the Late Mesolithic or Early Neolithic.

    That the two panels on Orthostat 8 are maps of the Boyne, gets back to the issue of the art not being oriented as intended. In this case, Orthostat 8 would have originally been located along a path leading up to the site. "Recent research suggests that many [carved stones] are associated with the fringes of uplands and with important paths of access between lower and higher ground. On occasion, they seem to line the route towards important monument complexes." (GardWeb)

  12. While the spiral symbol is most associated with Newgrange, based on the historical record, Orthostat 8, it was not the first mound within the Boyne to be depicted in such a manner, rather it was a monument northwest of Newgrange, marked T-8. (see drawing & Lidar, pdf pages 23 & 24)

  13. Though Newgrange today is an immense passage mound, with a gleaming, white quartz facade, that wasn't always the case. As seen in the drawing, the largest monument was originally a set of four (4) concentric rings, labeled Site Z, with an incorporated mound located in its outer circuit. "Magnetic gradiometry and susceptibility surveys carried out in 1999 and 2000 in the field immediately to the east of Newgrange have revealed what appears to be the full extent of the larger Newgrange circle [Site Z] as well as a number of distinct elements composed of regularly spaced, double and single rows of pits." (McCarthy 2002; Kevin Barton, pers. comm.) It's that mound, that became the main mound at Newgrange. This is further supported by the findings of Stout and Stout, that the initial construction phase consisted of a smaller turf mound. (see photo & drawings, pdf pages 51 & 53) Also, "Based on the current understanding of the stratigraphical relationship between the various tombs, four main phases of construction for the Boyne 'cemetery' have been suggested. Closely spaced clusters of small mounds less than 15m in diameter seem to have appeared first, followed by more widely distributed mounds of larger size." (Sheridan 1985/86; Cooney 2000) It is, therefore, extremely likely that within the turf mound, are a number of burial cists and/or pits set out in a circular arrangement, just like those found at Tara. (see item 9, para. 3 above) Though an area on the northwest perimeter of the turf mound was excavated; in search of a second passageway, no remains were recovered.

    Prior to the construction of Newgrange, the passageway of which is aligned to the winter solstice sunrise, the three (3) outer circuits of Site Z were removed, to make room for The Great Circle - originally consisting of 35 to 38 large standing stones, of which only 12 exist today - along with a quartz and granite field unearthed in front of the entrance. This array, like the 'dial' at Knowth, was no doubt used to calculate astronomical events. The reason for suggesting this, is that there had to have been some system employed by the builders to calculate, at the very least, the winter solstice sunrise. The quartz field, just as at Knowth, would have provided the 'astronomers' a clearer view of the shadows cast by the standing stones of The Great Circle. The line of alignment to the winter solstice, would have been extended by the center line of the entrance stone, and a pyramidal standing stone - now missing - found in the chamber by Thomas Molyneux in 1726, which he believed originally stood at its center. There was one oval stone setting found just east of the entrance, which likely marked the shadow cast by GC-2 at the summer equinox. Based on the settings unearthed at Knowth, it's quite likely there were other settings, the stones of which were probably reused by subsequent inhabitants of the area. (see drawings, pdf pages 54 and photos, top of pdf page 55)

    The initial excavation at Newgrange was conducted at the same time as Dr. Eogan's at Knowth, who believed the quartz fields were placed in front of the entrances for a reason. However, the engineers at Newgrange, based merely on the fact that the quartz field was found outside the area of the fallen kerbstones, determined that the quartz had come off the facade of Newgrange. In order for this to have occurred, the kerbstones would have to have fallen prior to any of the quartz coming loose from the facade, which is highly improbable, as the engineers had to use cement to adhere the quartz to the facade of the mound, during reconstruction. (see photos, middle of pdf page 55) That said, if in fact the facade was originally constructed as it looks today, without the use of cement, then the first stones to have fallen over the millennia, would logically have been the quartz and granite. Furthermore, there's no correlation whatsoever between fallen kerbstones and the quartz. The most likely scenario, is that the kerbstones were set a few feet inside the perimeter of the quartz field, which was laid down decades or centuries earlier.

    With regards to Sites K & L, they didn't start off as passage mounds, but rather ringed monuments, similar to the 13m timber enclosure at Tara. Therefore, it's likely that surrounding their cairns, are a number of burial cists and/or pits, just like those found surrounding the cairn of the Mound of the Hostages, as discussed in item 9. Not only do they match the location of the symbols on the 'panel', but the radiocarbon dating; indicating they were constructed prior to Newgrange, agrees with the historical record, i.e. the panel on Orthostat 8.

    As for the cluster of 'monuments' southwest of the main mound, evidence of structures in that area consist of a number of pit circles. (see photos, bottom of pdf page 55) Though the structures are believed to have been built after Newgrange, based on the historical record, Orthostat 8, they existed well before its construction. "In 1982 and 1983, excavation ahead of site management works at Newgrange (Sweetman 1985) revealed an extension of the arc of pits and postholes uncovered during O'Kelly's work around the southern perimeter of the tomb. Radiocarbon dates for these new features complemented earlier dates obtained by O'Kelly for his pits, confirming the existence of a large pit circle measuring nearly 70m in diameter and dating to approximately the mid third millennium BC. Additional site management works in 1984 revealed another pit circle to the west of the passage tomb, smaller in size but of a similar date to the southern circle." (Sweetman 1987) "At Newgrange... an oval structure defined by a wall trench and postholes was found beneath the Beaker horizon to the west of the main tomb entrance." (O'Kelly 1982: 76-7) "Approximately 50m to the west of the mound, a smaller 20m pit and post circle was uncovered." (Sweetman 1987) "Small amounts of Beaker pottery were recovered from both sites. The two structures produced very similar radiocarbon dates... the presence of Grooved Ware sherds on the former site (Sweetman 1985, 209; Roche 1995, 57) and their absence on the latter may indicate that one predates the other."

  14. Located northeast of Newgrange is Site E, which has yet to be excavated. What remains in the landscape, is a small mound surrounded by a ring of standing stones. Interestingly, there's a drawing done by Edward Lhwyd, the upper figure of which is thought to be Site E. However, based on the rear panel of Orthostat 8, the site originally consisted of a string of four (4) ringed mounds, so the bottom figure is likely what remained of the mound immediately below Site E, during Lhwyd's survey of the area in 1699. (see photo & drawing, pdf page 56)

  15. Just northeast of Knowth is a ringed monument marked T-1 on the Lidar and drawing, however, taking into consideration the issues raised in the introduction regarding the locations of the monuments varying slightly from those depicted on the panel, it may actually be Site M. (see photo, pdf page 57) While Geraldine and Matthew Stout in their recent book identified Site M as an Early Medieval Secular Cemetery, given the "Large quantities of unstratified prehistoric lithics [that] were recovered." it's entirely possible the site existed as far back as the Late Mesolithic or Early Neolithic.

  16. Five hundred meters southeast of Knowth, is a string of three (3) ringed monuments, the upper of which is marked T-5. (see drawing & Lidar image, pdf pages 23 & 24) Though this area has never been excavated, and the site not marked on any maps, it matches the location depicted on the panel. Furthermore, it resembles the ringed monument found a Monknewtown, just north of Knowth. (see insert of Lidar image & photo, pdf page 58)  While the southern most monument, labeled T-6, is clearly visible in the Lidar, the middle one would have to be located using Magnetic Gradiometry.

  17. During the Early Neolithic, 3500 - 3000 BC, "The homestead was again the rectangular wooden house, but a progression to nucleated settlement is evident at Knowth, where the remains of a palisaded enclosure up to 379 feet (100 m) in diameter has come to light." (Dr. George Eogan) The site referred to here is Site N. (see drawing & Lidar image, pdf pages 23 & 24) Whether the rectangular symbol in this instance depicts a single structure carved proportionately larger, as in the case of the rectangular symbol discussed in item 3, or a "nucleated settlement", similar to a dot on a map representing an entire town or city, would be difficult to say.

  18. As mentioned in the introduction, Dowth is not depicted on Orthostat 8, however, Kerbstone 51 at Dowth, which has been dubbed 'The Stone of the Seven Suns', is most likely a depiction of the site and the immediate area. The reason for this suggestion, is that Dowth lies at the end of a long ridge, roughly 2km (1.2 miles) east of Newgrange, with several monuments located near the main mound; two small passage mounds to the northeast, and beyond are the remains of a large henge. Southwest of Dowth, are three passage mounds; two circular and one elongated mound. The two symbols just below Dowth, depict a mound and long barrow, without a kerb or enclosing ditch. (see photo, drawing & map, pdf page 59) (Note: interpretation of the images and drawings is solely the work of this author.) This stone is another example of the art not being oriented the way it was intended, as it was likely located somewhere along a path leading to the site, and reused as a kerbstone upon becoming obsolete.

    Another reason for having suggested that Knowth was originally part of an adjoining territory, is the art is not the same style as that at Knowth and Newgrange. One obvious difference, is the manner in which passage mounds are depicted, which resembles the style found at Loughcrew. (see drawings, pages pdf pages 59 & 60) This could be attributed to the artists simply choosing there own style. Alternatively, it may indicate that there were closer cultural ties between Dowth and Loughcrew, than to Knowth and Newgrange, despite the fact that Loughcrew is 42km (26 miles) west of the Boyne. Additionally, the 'offset' symbol is not used to depict long barrows on Orthostat 8, as opposed to those at Dowth and Loughcrew.

    19. Related Topics

  19. Within Cairn T at Loughcrew, is a panel on the backstone of the passageway, that's been dubbed 'The Equinox Stone', this due to its illumination during sunrise of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. While that might explain some of the symbols as being the sun, it doesn't explain the rest of the symbols. One of the symbols has been interpreted as being that of a solar eclipse, i.e. the corona supposedly in two different positions as the moon transits the sun. However, what that interpretation doesn't explain, is why the moon has radiating arcs, presumably depicting moonlight. During an eclipse, solar or lunar, the only light the moon reflects is Earthshine, which though sufficient to very faintly illuminate the surface of the moon, it requires a magnifying instrument of some sort, with the proper light filters, in order to observe it. The simplest interpretation, is that the symbol depicts a passage mound and two incorporated mounds, with a kerb, a perfect example of which is Site 16 at Knowth. (see photos and drawings, pdf page 60) The two symbols directly to the left of the 'eclipse symbol', have been interpreted as being "calibration offsets", which requires a long and involved explanation. While the word 'offset' may describe their design, they depict nothing more than long barrows; one with a partial and the other a complete enclosing ditch. As for to the remaining symbols, they depict mounds and barrows of various shapes and sizes, along with a few features in the landscape. In short, the panel is a map of the area. (see Glossary, pdf pages 64 - 68)

  20. On Patrickstown Hill at Loughcrew, lies Cairn X-1, within which there's a stone dubbed the 'Calendar Stone', due to its depiction of another 'dial', similar to those found at Knowth. (see drawing, pdf page 61) What the stone also depicts, is the site in front of which the life-size version of the 'dial' was constructed, in this case a passage mound with a kerb, partially enclosed by a ditch, of which Site 20 at Knowth is a prime example. (see Glossary, pdf page 66) Assuming the stone was not moved there from a nearby monument, by some subsequent inhabitants of the area over the millennia, that site would logically be Cairn X-1. Whether the outer circular symbols depict quartz fields representing phases and standstills of the moon, or smaller mounds, is impossible to tell, as the site has never been excavated.

  21. Southwest of Patrickstown, at Carnbane West, Loughcrew, lies Cairn L. On one of the capstones, is a panel that likely depicts Cairn L and its immediate surroundings. (see map & photo, pdf page 62 and drawing & photo, pdf page 63) (Note: interpretation of the images and drawings is solely the work of this author.) As with the symbol on the backstone in Cairn T, there's a symbol that's also been interpreted as being of an eclipse, which again involves another lengthy explanation. A more plausible explanation, is that the symbol depicts a mound, Cairn L, with an incorporated mound, Cairn J, showing their contour lines. (see Glossary, pdf page 66) Since the site has never been excavated, the existence of the numerous small mounds, would have to be revealed using Magnetic Gradiometry.

Conclusion

While the words 'decipher' and 'decode' are often used by those searching for the meaning of the petroglyphs, there is in actuality no code to decipher, rather the majority of the symbols simply come down to, for lack of a better description, 'What You See Is What You Get'. If all the current "decoding" of the Neolithic and Bronze Age art were correct, i.e. being abstract, highly stylized, to depicting aspects of our solar system and beyond, or visions by shamans, it would mean that the inhabitants of Ireland and Britain were perhaps the only cultures in history to have never depicted their immediate surroundings in their art. This not only flies in the face of everything we know about art from its earliest days, but the endless and involved explanations, defy the very principle of 'Occam's Razor'.